The Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis (EHS) is a structure located at the conjunction of the Indian Plate, the Eurasian Plate and the Burma platelet.  This boundary with the Burma platelet resulted in the termination of the Himalayan mountain belt (at the convergence of the Indian and Eurasian plates) and formed the EHS.  The presence of the platelet also results in dextral strike-slip motion in the faults along the plate boundary; here, the collision boundary becomes a transform fault.

There are three main geologic units in the EHS.  The Himalayan terrane is composed of the Tethys-Himalayan sequence and the High Himalayan crystalline sequence, and is part of the Indian Plate.  The Tethys-Himalayan sequence is mainly composed of low-grade metasedimentary rocks as well as Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments, while the High Himalayan crystalline sequence is composed of high-grade metamorphic rocks.  The Indus-Tsangpo Suture zone is the suture zone created by the convergence of the Indian and Eurasian plates; it is folded around the EHS, and separates the Himalayan terrane from the south Lhasa terrane.  The Lhasa terrane is formed of two geologic units: the granulite facies metamorphic unit, which has granulitic lenses or blocks within the amphibolite facies country rock, and the amphibolite facies metamorphic unit, which consists of amphibolite, gneiss, schist, and some marble and quartzite.  It also contains a Gangdese batholith chain.  The map below (Figure 1) depicts the rock types present in the EHS.

These two terranes came together at the convergence of the Indian and Eurasian plates, which first began to converge approximately 50 million years ago.

The EHS consists of a fold structure as well as a fault structure.  The fold is antiformal, and occurs in the Indus-Tsangpo Suture zone (shown in yellow in Figure 1 above), as well as in the Himalayan terrane rocks (both of which are represented in shades of light pink in the map above).  In addition, in the colored map below this text, there is a shear zone around the Himalayan terrane rock antiform known as the Yarlung-Tsangpo shear zone.  Although this shear zone appears to correspond to the Indus-Tsangpo Suture zone, it is associated with older Himalayan events.  
The final structure shown on the geologic maps (best shown in Figure 3) is the dextral faulting around the rock of the Himalayan terrane.  

The deformation that created this feature originated from the collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate and the Burma platelet.  Both of these collisions were sources of strain that deformed the Indian Plate.  The force of both of them acting on the Himalayan rocks created the antiformal fold.  However, the dextral faulting was created by the force of the Indian plate pushing past the Burmese platelet.

Booth, A. L., C. P. Chamberlain, W. S.f. Kidd, and P. K. Zeitler. "Constraints on the Metamorphic Evolution of the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis from Geochronologic and Petrologic Studies of Namche Barwa." Geological Society of America Bulletin 121, no. 3/4 (2009): 385-407.

Holt, William E., James F. Ni, Terry C. Wallace, and A. J. Haines. "The Active Tectonics of the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis and Surrounding Regions." Journal of Geophysical Research 96, no. B9 (1991): 14595-4632. Accessed March 30, 2015. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/91JB01021/abstract.

Lang, Karl A. “The Persistence of Rapid Exhumation in the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis.” PhD diss., University of Washington, 2014.

Liu, Y., Z. Berner, H-J Massonne, and X. Xiao. "Geology of the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis." Himalayan Journal of Sciences 2, no. 4 (2004): 197-98.

Quanru, Geng, Pan Guitang, Lailin Zheng, Zhiliang Chen, Richard D. Fisher, Zhiming Sun, Chunsheng Ou, Han Dong, Xiaowei Wang, Sheng Li, Xiongying Lou, and Heng Fu. "The Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis: Major Tectonic Domains, Ophiolitic Mélanges and Geologic Evolution." Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 27, no. 3 (2006): 265-85. Accessed March 30, 2015. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1367912005000878.

Rowley, David. "Age of Initiation of the India-Asia Collision." Age of Initiation of the India-Asia Collision. Accessed March 31, 2015. http://geosci.uchicago.edu/~rowley/Rowley/Collision_Age.html.

Zhang, Z. M., G. C. Zhao, M. Santosh, J. L. Wang, X. Dong, and J. G. Liou. "Two Stages of Granulite Facies Metamorphism in the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis, South Tibet: Petrology, Zircon Geochronology and Implications for the Subduction of Neo-Tethys and the Indian Continent beneath Asia." Journal of Metamorphic Geology, 2010, 719-33.

A geological belt, or orogenic belt, forms when continental plates collide and crumple upwards to form mountains.

The Mother Lode belt is an orogenic belt including a series of gold and mineral veins found around its region. The main belt extends approximately 190 km from Georgetown, CA to Mariposa CA, as demonstrated in Figure 1. In other words, the belt is found throughout mid-California. The main belt ranges between 1.0-6 km in width throughout its entirety (Mechanical 4). It is most known for its abundance in gold, and is often attributed to the “California Gold Rush”, an 1848-1855 period which attracted roughly 300,000 people to California in search of gold. 

The belt is a reverse dip-slip/thrust fault dipping eastward found along the suture of the Smartville arc with the North American Plate (Mechanical 6). The reverse displacement is calculated to be of a few kilometers (Mechanical 4). There are also gouge and breccia zones accompanying the faults (Cloos 233). The rocks involved are mainly Jurassic near the the Mariposa county, with Carboniferous rocks in the Calaveras area (Cloos 228). The main rock types can be seen in Figure 1, and consist essentially of amphibolite schist, black slate, greenstones, intrusive igneous rocks, hornblende, gabro, granodiorite, albite and albite porphyry (Knopf 10-21). According to Cloos, "a period of strong deformation [is] assumed between the Carboniferous and the Jurassic" (Cloos 230). 

The belt includes a series of smaller faults, called the gold veins. An example of on of these faults is seen in image on the left. It is important to note that this is a representation of one of the these veins, and not the map of an actual one. As is visible in the image, the faults also shows signs of some sinistral and some dextral strike-slip. However, this motion is minimal as the the fault is mainly a reverse dip-slip (Mechanical 4). 

In general, the Mother Lode belt deformation is the product of a tectonic collision: the Smartville arc terrane and the North American Plate. An arc terrane is a crustal fragment of a tectonic plate formed by volcanoes. The suture between the two crusts is the contact and is generally identifiable as a fault.
It is thought that the Smartville arc was formed over a east dipping subduction zone during the Jurassic period (Dilek 503). It collided with with North American plate, forming the Mother Lode belt , which explaining the east dip of the faults observed during the Field Trip to the Southern Mother Lode (Mechanical 6). This interpretation is very plausible considering the location and geometry of the belt. When comparing the western edge of the Smartville complex in figures 3 and 4 with the belt in figures 1 and 2, it is possible to deduce from the relative towns on the maps that the two are appear very similar. The collision would have created enough heat energy to force water from to the surface. Once cooled, the water left minerals behind, including the gold that prompted the "Gold Rush". 

“Field Trip to the Southern Mother Lode”. Mechanical Involvement of Fluids in Faulting. Print. 
Blanchard, Douglas, Menzies, Martin, and Xenophontos, Costas. "Genesis of the Smartvill Arc-Ophiolite, Sierra Nevada Foothills, California". American Journal of Science. Vol. 280-A, p. 329-344. 1980. Web. 
http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/1980/ajs_280A_1.pdf/329.pdf
Cloos, Ernst. “Mother Lode and Sierra Nevada Batholith”. The Journal of Geology. Vol. 43, No. 3, p. 225-249. Web.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/30056249?seq=4#page_scan_tab_contents
Dilek, Yildirim. “Tectonic Significance of Post-Accretion Rifting of a Mesozoic Island-Arc Terrane in the Northern Sierra Nevada, California”. The Journal of Geology. July 1989. Vol. 97. P. 503-518. Web.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/30078353?Search=yes&resultItemClick=true&searchText=smartville&searchText=block&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dsmartville%2Bblock%26amp%3Bacc%3Don%26amp%3Bwc%3Don%26amp%3Bfc%3Doff%26amp%3Bgroup%3Dnone&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
Knopf, Adolph. “Mother Lode System of California”. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 157, 88pp. Web.
http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0157/report.pdf

The Denali Fault System, DFS, has a geological beginning dating back approximately a billion years. At this time the Earth’s tectonic plates formed a single body named Rodinia, where much of present day Alaska was submerged under water (3). Between this time period and the formation of Pangea, islands were formed from spreading centers in the Earth’s crust, and began converging towards Alaska. Around 300 million years ago these islands began to collide with the southwest coast of Alaska, bringing with it a distinct Aleutian terrane. 

One key geological feature of the DFS is the Cantwell Formation, a combination of two bedding outcrops that compose much of the fault. The lower bedding outcrop is a primarily sedimentary unit, consisting of conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, and coal. The upper outcrop is a volcanic unit, composed of intercalated andesite, rhyolite, basalt flows, and some pyroclastic rocks.  The formation of this unique segment is likely a result of thrusting from the suturing of the Wrangell and southern Alaska terrain (Ridgway, Kenneth D. et al 1997). The most recent age estimate of this formation is the Paleocene era, dating back between 56 and 66 million years ago. Age estimates were determined through the interpretation of fossil plant leaves present in the lower bedding (Ridgway, Kenneth D. et al 1997). 

After a long time period of island collision events, volcanic activity took over creating the geological system. This was around 56 million years ago, when a major subduction zone was created through the convergence of the Pacific and North American plates. This subduction contributed to the landscape through volcanic eruptions, and rising igneous minerals such as granite. Up until the present day, the Denali fault has shown moderate levels of activity, triggering a magnitude 7.9 earthquake in 2002. This event was the largest strike-slip earthquake in North America in over 150 years (Lu, Zhong. Et al 2003).

The Denali Fault System is refereed to as such because there are numerous faults present. It is convenient to view the fault as a single curve, but it is actually comprised of clusters of fault patterns. The DFS is an example of an intra-continental shear zone, with lateral extrusion as a primary feature (Jadamec, Margarete A. et al 2013).  Evidence suggests that the system is a strike-slip fault, and also accommodates to large slips. Flat slab subduction has caused a mountainous region to grow above the zone, creating the highest terrain in North America. These regions primarily consist of the Aleutian slab, which was previously a collection of islands. Even now there is a large cluster of islands off the coast of Alaska, named the Aleutian Islands.

Although it is impossible to know with certainty the true nature of all system deformation, there are very accurate models which make a good illustration. Using a model which simulates the subduction between the two tectonic plates, we can have a qualitative look at system velocities. These velocities should be consistent with lateral movement along the fault.

Another notable geological feature is that the fault system has essentially isolated a portion of the North American Plate. The DFS has faulted within a close proximity of the Pacific plate. This left a piece of crust surrounded by the Aleutian trench to the south, the Denali fault to the north, and the plate interface beneath. This land mass is called the Wrangell Block, and has sparked some interesting models. These unique conditions may have in fact changed Wrangell Block motion with respect to its North American plate. Some geologists hypothesize that the body is moving with the Pacific plate, while approaching the DFS (Jadamec, Margarete A. et al 2013). 

This shows that geologists still have questions about the deformation properties along the Denali fault. In order to paint a better picture, models are used to simulate tectonic movement over millions of years. There are only a few number of models which can adequately describe the DFS, one being an overriding and subduction plane, combined with the underlying mantle. The modelling consists of meshes spanning 185 to 240 degrees longitude, and 45 to 72 degrees north latitude, where the DFS is. The Aleutian slab was analyzed, as it is a primary terrane of the Wrangell Block and Cantwell Basin.

The Denali Fault System is responsible for many interesting geological features, ranging from the highest altitude in North America, to the Wrangell block. The fault system has shown its slip potential in recent years, resulting in high magnitude in-land earthquakes. In terms of primary deformation, I believe these models show many characteristics of the DFS, but we are still limited in our deformation analysis.

Primary References
-Ridgway, Kenneth D., Jeffrey M. Trop, and Arthur R. Sweet. "Thrust-top basin formation along a suture zone, Cantwell basin, Alaska Range: Implications for development of the Denali fault system." Geological Society of America Bulletin 109.5 (1997): 505-523. http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/jtrop/Ridgway%20et%20al.,%201997,%20Cantwell.pdf

-Jadamec, Margarete A., Magali I. Billen, and Sarah M. Roeske. "Three-dimensional numerical models of flat slab subduction and the Denali fault driving deformation in south-central Alaska." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 376 (2013): 29-42. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X13003257

-Lu, Zhong, Tim Wright, and Chuck Wicks. "Deformation of the 2002 Denali Fault Earthquakes, mapped by Radarsat‐1 interferometry." Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 84.41 (2003): 425-431. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2003EO410002/pdf


Secondary References
-Bilich, Andria, John F. Cassidy, and Kristine M. Larson. "GPS seismology: Application to the 2002 Mw 7.9 Denali fault earthquake." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 98.2 (2008): 593-606. http://www.colorado.edu/engineering/GPS/bilich_bssa.pdf 

(1) http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/content/114/12/1480/F4.large.jpg
(2) http://www.aeic.alaska.edu/Denali_Fault_2002/
(3) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=waRCongzBa4
(4) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Npx8MK2Wyoo

The alpine fault runs along the west side of the South Island of New Zealand and is "one of the longest, straightest, and fastest-moving plate boundary transform faults on Earth." (eg. Berryman et al., 2012). There is dextral strike-slip motion as well as convergence between the Australian and Pacific plates. The strike-slip portion of the fault is almost 900 km long and is connected to subduction zones on both ends. The fault was found to have an offset of 8000 m along a 100 km portion, with up to approximately 30 mm of right-lateral movement per year (eg. Barth et al., 2013). The convergence of the Pacific and Australian plates only began 10-15 mya and is causing uplift to occur along the fault. The rate of uplift of the Australian plate is approximately 2.6 mm per year. The orientation of various segments of the fault are given in the photo above. 


The photo to the left shows "vertical strain rates in the rocks adjacent to the Alpine Fault as a function of their distance from the fault." More uplift occurs in rocks adjacent to the fault, as shown by the increasing strain rate. (Hagbo, 2002) 



The landscape consists of many formations created by glaciation and further altered by fluvial processes and landslides. Long ago expansive glaciers sculpted valleys and interrupted drainage systems causing lakes and swamps to form. Now only small glaciers remain at the peaks of mountains. Pleistocene aged glacial moraines and outwash plains were left behind during interglacial periods. Alluvial fans also spread out where rivers flow out of the mountain range. The highest river terrace is approximately 10,800 years old and has a vertical displacement of 80 m. Coastal dune ridges and discontinuous bedrock mountain ranges carved by glacial activity are the remaining major landforms of the region. 

An ophiolite sequence from the Permian is offset almost 500 km and shows the minimum offset that occurred in the Neogene period. (eg. Sutherland, 1999) There is a broad mylonite zone almost 1 km thick that formed at 25-30 km of depth, now overtop of Holocene gravels. This zone was uplifted and is now exposed along the fault surface. (eg. Norris and Cooper, 2007) Pseudotachylytes are present as well as a zone of cataclasite and fault gouge almost 50 m wide along the west side of the mylonite zone. Eventually, the mylonites grade into amphibolite facies Alpine Schist.

The Alpine Fault has a much more constant earthquake recurrence interval than most faults. Over the past 8,000 years 24 earthquakes have occurred with a recurrence period of approximately 330 years. Earthquakes of about magnitude 8.0 are created when the fault slips. There is a 30% change of the next earthquake occurring within 50 years from now. (eg. Berryman et al., 2012)

Primary Sources: 
Barth, N., Kulhanek, D., Beu, A., Murray-Wallace, C., Hayward, B., Mildenhall, D., & Lee, D. (n.d.). New c. 270 kyr strike-slip and uplift rates for the southern Alpine Fault and implications for the New Zealand plate boundary. Journal of Structural Geology, 64, 39-52. Retrieved September 5, 2013, from http://www.sciencedirect.com.proxy3.library.mcgill.ca/science/article/pii/S019181411300151X#

Sutherland, R. (1999). Basement geology and tectonic development of the greater New Zealand region: An interpretation from regional magnetic data. Tectonophysics, 308(3), 341-362. Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040195199001080

Berryman, K., Cochran, U., Clark, K., Biasi, G., Langridge, R., & Villamor, P. (2012). Major Earthquakes Occur Regularly on an Isolated Plate Boundary Fault. Science, 336(6089), 1690-1693. Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.sciencemag.org.proxy3.library.mcgill.ca/content/336/6089/1690.full

Norris, R. J. and Cooper, A. F. (2007) The Alpine Fault, New Zealand: Surface Geology and Field Relationships, in A Continental Plate Boundary: Tectonics at South Island, New Zealand (eds D. Okaya, T. Stern and F. Davey), American Geophysical Union, Washington, D. C.. doi: 10.1029/175GM09

Davies, T.R.; McSaveney, M.J.; Beetham, R.D. 2006 Rapid block glides : slide-surface fragmentation in New Zealand's Waikaremoana landslide. Quarterly journal of engineering geology and hydrogeology, 39(2): 115-129


Snee, J., Toy, V., & Gessner, K. (2015). Significance of brittle deformation in the footwall of the Alpine Fault, New Zealand: Smithy Creek Fault zone. Journal of Structural Geology, 64, 79-98.

Secondary Sources: 
Alpine Fault. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Earthquakes/Major-Faults-in-New-Zealand/Alpine-Fault

Hagbo, C. (2002, April 30). Southern Alps Orogeny, New Zealand. Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.geo.arizona.edu/geo5xx/geo527/SouthernAlps/index2.html

Harold Creek - Alpine Fault mylonites and pseudotachylytes, Department of Geology, University of Otago, New Zealand. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.otago.ac.nz/geology/research/structural-geology/alpine-fault/harold-creek.html

Virtual field trip: Alpine Fault, Department of Geology, University of Otago, New Zealand. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://www.otago.ac.nz/geology/research/structural-geology/alpine-fault/virtual-af.html

THE FAULT
Queen Charlotte’s fault, named after its located near Queen Charlotte’s Islands in Canada, is a transform fault of approximately 700 km long (see figure 1). A transform fault is a horizontal motion that occurs when two plates are forced to move along each other (see figure 2). Here, the Pacific plate and the North America plate are moving along each other. The Pacific plate is moving upwards in the northwest direction, while the North America plate is moving downwards. (Fossen, 151) This type of fault is usually connected on both ends to other faults, ridges or to subduction zones. A subduction zone occurs at plate margins, when the plates converge and one of the plates is plunging under the other one. (Mackie, Abstract) In this case, Queen Charlotte’s fault carries the strain to the Cascadia subduction zone below it and the Alaska subduction zone above it.  Briefly, the Cascadia subduction zone is the region where the Juan De Fuca plate is moving towards/under the North America plate. Also, the Queen Charlotte-Fairweather fault system is the region known as the junction of Queen Charlotte’s Fault and the Fairweather fault along the Alaskan coast. (Earthquake) The Queen Charlotte fault system has been active since the Triassic period to today. 

On figure 1, we can see the west coast of Canada, the boundary with the United States of America and a small portion of Alaska. As explained before, Queen Charlotte's fault is located between the Alaska subduction zone, which is illustrated by the dark contour on the northest of the continent, and the Cascadia subduction zone, which starts near Vancouver island.  

Since Queen Charlotte’s fault is located on the oceanic floor, all the observations mainly consist of submarine topography, record and analysis of seismic activity and its connection to the surrounding geological formations. (Brown Bulletin 54, 153) For instance, Canada’s largest earthquake occurred the 22nd of August 1945, an earthquake of magnitude 8.1 occurred near Prince Rupert city; its study revealed a lot about the nearby fault. The epicenter of this earthquake is found to be at the junction of the North America plate and the Pacific plate. The study of this earthquake also confirmed that “although the Queen Charlotte’s fault is dominantly a right-lateral transform […] fault, there is also compression between the Pacific and North American plates along the southern portion of the fault where [the two plates converge with the Juan de Fuca plate]”. (Magnitude, 2) The seismologists found this earthquake to be a result of a combination of reverse and strike-slip faulting: which chategorizes this fault as an oblique transform fault (see figure 3). Reserve faulting is often the result of a compression force between the two plates; the hanging wall block moves upwards while the footwall block moves downwards (see Firgure 4). (Fossen, 151) The combination of both faulting types results in an oblique motion towards the northwest. 

SECONDARY FEATURE
Secondary features can also be observed on Queen Charlotte’s fault. According to A.Sutherland Brown’s article Geology of the Queen Charlotte Islands, folds with low intensity are observable near the junction of the Pacific and North America plates. A few folds on the sea floor are observable on the photo provided by Google Earth. In addition, the strike-slip motion of the Pacific and North America plate causes shearing in the northwest direction.

The folds in volcanic rocks are mainly monoclinical and dip less than 30 degrees. In Brown’s article, they are compared to “wraped panels of volcanic rock”. However, the folds observed on sedimentary rocks near the fault zone are overturned folds and steeper. It is observed that the folds in Triassic and Jurassic rocks are oriented west and northwest. These oldest folds have wavelengths of 10-16 miles with amplitudes of 2-3 miles (see figure 5). The folds observed in Cretaceous rocks are slightly overturned with their axial plane trace perpendicular to the Rennell fault system also oriented northwest (see figure 6,7).  Then, in the Ternary rocks, the dip of the folds is increasing towards the Queen Charlotte basin, which Brown attributes to compaction forces. (Brown Bulletin 54, 156)The folds observed in all these rocks are all gentle (interlimb angle of 120-180 degrees). (Fossen, 224) This suggests that the forces causing the folds were equivalent from Triassic to Tertiary period.  

By studying the position of the folds with respect to the main fault line, the folds seem to be caused by regional stress in addition to the conjugate fault system. In other words, the folds appear to be controlled by the northwest strike-slip fault and by the compression of the Pacific and North America plates. In addition, the relationship between Queen Charlotte’s fault and the system of faults around it could explain the shearing in the northwest direction. (Brown Bulletin 54, 156)

THE GEOLOGY
A geological map of the southern Queen Charlotte’s islands from a study by Sutherlands A. Brown and W.J Jeffery in 1958-59 displays the location and age of the observed rocks, the beddings, foliation, fold axes, faults, contact and contour interval of 1000ft (see figure 8). The Preliminary Geological map locates the rock from the Jurassic period and the plutonic rocks found on the islands.

The study on Queen Charlotte Islands of the rocks from the Mesozoic era, from the Triassic period to the Cretaceous period, reveals the presence of basalt, limestone, volcanic sandstone, horneblende, garnite, quartz, amphibolites, argillite, shale, sharpstone, mica, and rhyolite among others. (Brown Bulletin 54, 38) Among a variety of sedimentary and plutonic rocks, an important amount of volcanic rocks is mostly found in the southern islands. The beddings vary from a layer of volcanic rocks to a layer of sedimentary rocks, followed by an unconformity, a layer of sedimentary rocks, and a younger layer of volcanic rocks. Overall, the study leads to the conclusion that the fault occurs in sedimentary and volcanic rocks, since they are the most common rocks on the islands. (Brown Preliminary Geological Map, 1)

An interesting note is the diversity of elements found on Queen Charlotte’s islands. A study on the sedimentary basins located offshore of British Columbia was performed at the University of Victoria which evaluated the evolution of the proportions of hydrocarbon formation in the basins (see figure 9). This research agrees with the affluence in elements of Canada’s west coast and concluded that the conditions and locations are possible for gas and oil formation. (Sedimentary)

The Queen Charlotte's fault is often compared to the San Andreas fault. While the San Andreas fault is continental fault, both display similar faulting system. 

REFERENCES
Brown, Sutherland A. "Chapter Four: Structural Geology." Bulletin 54: Geology of the Queen Charlotte Islands British Columbia. British Columbia, n.d. Web. 22 May 2015. <http://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/Mining/Geoscience/PublicationsCatalogue/BulletinInformation/BulletinsAfter1940/Pages/Bulletin54.aspx>.

"Magnitude 7.7 Queen Charlotte Islands Region." Iris Teachable Moments(2012): 1+. Iris. 2012. Web. 22 Mar. 2015. <http://www.iris.edu/hq/files/programs/education_and_outreach/retm/tm_121028_queencharlotte/121028queencharlotte.pdf>.

"Earthquake Map of Vancouver Island." Mid Island News. WordPress, n.d. Web. 22 Mar. 2015. <http://midislandnews.com/vancouver-island-marine-communication/earthquake-map-of-vancouver-island>.

Brown, Sutherlands A., and W.J Jeffery. Preliminary Geological Map - Southern Queen Charlotte's Islands. Rep. Victoria, B.C: British Columbia Departement of Mines, 1960. Print.

"Sedimentary Basins, Offshore B.C." University of Victoria. University of Victoria, n.d. Web. 27 Mar. 2015. <http://communications.uvic.ca/releases/release.php?display=photos&id=610>.

Mackie, David. Subduction beneath the Queen Charlotte Islands? : The Results of a Seismic Refraction Survey. Rep. Geophysics ed. N.p.: U of British Columbiia, 1985. Print. Plate Tectonics - British Columbia - Queen Charlotte Islands.

Clague, J. J. At Risk: Earthquakes and Tsunamis on the West Coast. Vancouver: Tricouni, 2006. Print.

Dehler, Sonya A. A Seismic Refraction Study of the Queen Charlotte Fault Zone. Rep. Geophysics ed. N.p.: U of British Columbiia, 1986. Print.

Fossen, Haakon. Structural Geology. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2010. Print.